World first for strange molecule

World first for strange molecule

By Victoria Gill Science reporter, BBC News

Electrons can be pictured as orbiting around a central nucleus

The researchers excite an atom to the "Rydberg state" using a laser

A molecule that until now existed only in theory has finally been made.
Known as a Rydberg molecule, it is formed through an elusive and extremely weak chemical bond between two atoms.
The new type of bonding, reported in Nature, occurs because one of the two atoms in the molecule has an electron very far from its nucleus or centre.
It reinforces fundamental quantum theories, developed by Nobel prize-winning physicist Enrico Fermi, about how electrons behave and interact.
The Rydberg molecules in question were formed from two atoms of rubidium - one a Rydberg atom, and one a "normal" atom.
The movement and position of electrons within an atom can be described as orbiting around a central nucleus - with each shell of orbiting electrons further from the centre.
A Rydberg atom is special because it has one electron alone in an outermost orbit - very far, in atomic terms, from its nucleus.
Back in 1934 Enrico Fermi predicted that if another atom were to "find" that lone, wandering electron, it might interact with it.
"But Fermi never imagined that molecules could be formed," explained Chris Greene, the theoretical physicist from the University of Colorado who first predicted that Rydberg molecules could exist.
"We recognised, in our work in the 1970s and 80s, the potential for a sort of forcefield between a Rydberg atom and a groundstate [or normal] atom.
"It's only now that you can get systems so cold, that you can actually make them."

Right place, right time
Unimaginably cold temperatures are needed to create the molecules, as Vera Bendkowsky from the University of Stuttgart who led the research explained. "The nuclei of the atoms have to be at the correct distance from each other for the electron fields to find each other and interact," she said. "We use an ultracold cloud of rubidium - as you cool it, the atoms in the gas move closer together."
At temperatures very close to absolute zero - minus 273C - this "critical distance" of about 100nm (nanometres - 1nm = one millionth of a millimetre) between the atoms is reached.
When one is a Rydberg atom, the two atoms form a Rydberg molecule. This 100nm gap is vast compared to ordinary molecules.

"The Rydberg electron resembles a sheepdog that keeps its flock together by roaming speedily to the outermost periphery of the flock, and nudging back towards the centre any member that might begin to drift away," said Professor Greene.

Pushing this electron out to its lonely periphery - and make a Rydberg atom - requires energy.
"We excite the atoms to the Rydberg stage with a laser," explained Dr Bendkowsky.
"If we have a gas at the critical density, with two atoms at the correct distance that are able to form the molecule, and we excite one to the Rydberg state, then we can form a molecule."
This ultracold experiment is also ultra-fast - the longest lived Rydberg molecule survives for just 18 microseconds. But the fact that the molecules can be made and seen confirms long-held fundamental atomic theories.

"This is a very exciting set of experiments," added Helen Fielding, a physical chemist from University College London.

"It shows that this approach is feasible, and it will be interesting to see what other fundamental physics we'll be able to test with it."

Prize-winning ideas

Professor Greene's prediction that Rydberg molecules could exist was inspired by another Nobel prize-winning piece of physics research.

When, in 1924 the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose sent some theoretical calculations about particles to Albert Einstein, Einstein made a prediction.

He said that if a gas was cooled to a very low temperature, the atoms would all suddenly collapse into their "lowest possible energy state", so they would be almost frozen and behave in an identical and predictable way.

In a sense this is analagous to when a gas suddenly condenses into drops of liquid.

When scientists reached the goal of Bose-Einstein condensation, by cooling and trapping alkali atoms, Professor Greene realised that ultracold physics could be used to form molecules that simply would not exist in any other conditions.

Nineteen to the dozen

Nineteen to the dozen
Stats on the sale of mobiles are out and they just go on to prove that Chennaiites love to talk…
ANUSHA VINCENT- Times News Network

It seems we Chennaiites love to be in touch. How else would you explain the fact that while all other metros have shown a steep decline in the sale of mobile phones, Chennai alone has recorded 4.69 lakh new mobile phone users this year? So, now that it has been clearly established that we are a cell-phone-loving populace, the simple question is…why? “It is mainly because we Tamilians absolutely love talking!” exclaims TV anchor and actress Divyadarshini ( DD), “It’s in our blood. Inherently, we are garrulous and feel restless even if there is a moment’s silence. In this vein, mobile phones are lifelines for most of us as they hold our entire social lives in them!”

And rightly enough, most agree that while meeting over a cuppa and talking about good ol’ times is charming, in today’s hectic world, it makes more sense to have conversations over phone, wherever possible.

“People in Mumbai, Delhi and Bangalore party to socialise, Chennaiites do so by talking on the phone. In fact, I can say without hesitation that most of us would feel like Tom Hanks in Castaway, without our phones!” DD laughs.

However, socialising isn’t the only reason cell phones have got such giant status. “It would spell professional suicide if you don’t own a mobile phone,” points out model Kenith, “I need to keep wired in throughout the day, to keep in touch with coordinators, or to make appointments. It is laughable to even think you can survive without a mobile, in a world where every minute could be crucial in your life.”

Which brings us to the next point, Chennai has been listed as the city with the most SMS usage. Why this distinction (dubious or otherwise)? “Obviously because messaging is a lot simpler,” pips singer Kavita Thomas, “It is an easy way to have a conversation, even when you are not really free. Besides, it is also psychological. It is easier to get away with things when you type instead of talk.”

While the SMS rage that caught on some years ago has shown no signs of weakening, it is now becoming increasingly common to see school students typing away with lazy efficiency, while their sprightly fingers oblige without complaints. “Children are so intelligent these days and very inquisitive. So it is only natural that they are enamoured by the world of cell-phones where you are connected to the outside world 24/7,” muses Kenith, “However, they don’t know how much is too much. When mobile phones start eating into academic space, it is bound to become an issue.”

And then there are those who effortlessly juggle more than one mobile phone. A survey has found that the number of mobile phone subscribers as a percentage of the city’s population is the highest in Chennai, at 111 percent. This means that a sizeable chunk of the population has more than one mobile phone. Most of them are, of course, celebrities, but it isn’t strictly only them. Don’t be surprised if you notice the girl next door, swinging down the road, one phone in either hand. The reasons range from showing-off to, “I need to have two phones; my post paid connection doesn’t have free messaging, so I have another one just for the free messages,” as law student Deepika explains. And it isn’t only city students like her. Chennai has a floating population of more than one million. And for those in this category, it is imperative to own a mobile phone so that they can be in constant touch with family back home.

But while many feel that the mobile phone is one of the best things to have ever happened, there are those who see only its cons. Lecturer Ravishankar P is one among them. He concludes crisply, “We have reached a point where, given an option between human company and a mobile phone, we choose the latter. These instruments are perhaps isolating us more then we realise.”

The Joy of Being Realistic

The Joy of Being Realistic
Written by Naren

There are many people who have either positive or negative approaches in life, but how many of them are realistic? Realistic means to look at things as they “really” are.

• Do you look at things as they are?
• Do you only look at the positive side or only the negative side?
• Are your thoughts influenced by positive thinking or by negative thinking?

Let me start by sharing my thoughts:

Italian Neo Realism

After having read my articles you might have already presumed that I have a great passion for movies. In college I used to spend most of my time in the library engrossing myself in film books, than in the classes. As I was learning about films and filmmakers, I came across The Bicycle Thief, directed by one of my favorite directors, Vittoria De Sica. This film made in 1948 has made an indelible impact in my life. The film is an example of Italian Neo realism in the history of cinema. Films which belong to this movement were shot mostly in locations, with non-actors in the lead role, financed in a shoe-string budget, and typically featured the story of the working class family.

The Bicycle Thief is one great example of the realistic cinema. The protagonist needs a job to support his family, but jobs are scarce. He finds one, which requires a bicycle. He manages to buy one by pawning the family’s bed sheets. Unfortunately the bicycle is stolen on the first day of his work. Heartbroken, the protagonist, with the help of his young son, tirelessly and desperately searches for the bicycle all day, but with no success. Tired, frustrated and scared the protagonist steals a bicycle in the end, gets caught, and is beaten by the mad crowd in front of his son. Embarrassed he could not look into his son’s eyes. The film ends showing father and son walking along the way with their future lying in uncertainty.

This film renders universal emotions in a simple way, paints the grim picture of reality, and translates the story on the screen as it is, maintaining its universally comprehensible theme. It does not force on the viewer a message like “Oh! You have to be positive and good things will come along the way. Don’t think of negative, be always positive.” The story is a depiction of a sharp and poignant reality of the struggling family, the most profound portrayal of father and son relationship, and thus stands out as one of the best films of all time.

Positive Thinking -- A Sweet Candy

Those who say that you have to be positive are simply giving us false consolations and hopes. They are simply deceiving us. I am not into hope, I am into reality.

You can keep on hoping to build a castle in the air and stay positive, but do you think your positive thinking will produce the outcome you are hoping for.

Absolutely not! These are false dreams. You can keep on thinking about being as rich as Warren Buffet or Bill Gates and be positive about it, but do you think you will be rich as they are just by thinking positively.

Positive thinking is just like handing candy to a weeping child. When you give him a sweet candy, he will stop crying for the moment and then when it’s finished he will start crying again. How long can you keep on giving the child sweet candies? The very notion that: You have to be positive whatsoever happens to you, is wrong. And, by thinking positively do you think it will solve your problems. Do you think your miseries will disappear into thin air right away? Do you think by denying the negative, the negative will not be there. NO. By being positive, you are simply attempting to hide the negative. You are just being evasive and not acknowledging the other half of the truth.

Hence, we have to understand that, positive thinking is just one way of looking at things.

Similarly, negative thinking is the other way of looking at things. It is as wrong as positive thinking. I am not for or against either side. To me, both positive and negative are equally important as they comprise the whole. Just like every coin has two sides, there is day and night, there is life and death, there is joy and pain, there is beauty and ugliness –all of these things are complimentary to each other. This is the truth and this is the reality. Reality cannot be changed. A lie changes, but truth always remains the same. This is the way the Existence has planned things. There is nothing we can do about it. We just have to accept it. Total acceptance leads to understanding.

Final Thoughts

Have you ever seen the beauty of reality? Have you ever realized the joy of seeing things as they are in their whole or totality, instead of looking at only one side? There is so much joy in adopting a realistic approach in life – neither being positive nor negative – just accepting the way things are with grace and love. If you start practicing this holistic attitude from now onwards, you will see the result. You will be astounded to see how both positive and negative support and are interdependent to each other.

Let me conclude with one example: The lotus is a beautiful flower that blooms out of the mud. This is the positive way of seeing it. But, if there wasn’t mud for the lotus flower in which to grow, then it wouldn’t look so beautiful. This is being realistic, looking at both the mud and the lotus flower.

The Joy of Waking Up Early

The Joy of Waking Up Early
Written by Naren

In this article I will be discussing why we cannot sleep, some of the benefits of being an early riser, and how it can be achieved by employing a few small steps. The article turned out to be longer than I had expected, so I have divided it into three parts. Each part is self-contained, but I would recommend you to go through them in order.

Sleep from different perspectives and its significance in our life

Sleep is absolutely essential to all living organisms. During sleep, while we are in deep rest, all our cells, brain, blood and other parts of our body are actively involved in refreshing and revitalizing our energy for the next day. If we don’t get enough sleep, we cannot function properly and it can have a negative impact on our body and mind. Sleep deprivation can cause many dangerous illnesses many of which we are not aware. Hence, we should understand our sleeping pattern; otherwise it can hamper us physically, emotionally and mentally.

Let me share my own thoughts first.

Was I an early riser?

No. I wasn’t. For most of my life in America, I have been a night owl. Why? There are many reasons. I came to the United States as an international student. In college, I was staying in the dormitory where nobody went to bed until 4 or 5 o’clock in the morning. And, as far as I was concerned, I just couldn’t sleep – it was a drastic change for me. On one hand I couldn’t sleep because of the agony of missing family, and on the other hand it was being in a completely different society. There were just too many things on my mind. As I mentioned earlier, most of my friends were late nighters. What did we used to do? Nothing. Just goof on the computer, play video games, watch movies, play ping pong, drink, party… Then when we had papers due the next morning, and we would stay up all night rushing to finish just before class. I was a pretty good student, but I must admit that I had not always been an early riser. It’s quite easy to be influenced and persuaded, and be lazy while you are in college. During the summer I had an overnight job as well as a day job to support my study in the United States. And, I must confess, things were not easy even after my graduation. I worked a graveyard shift for a while until I found a day job. I still remember how I used to yearn for a good night sleep while working those graveyard shifts.

So, not being an early riser was not a choice but a circumstance for the most part.

This certainly has had adverse effects on my sleeping pattern and stripped me of enjoying the beauty of the morning, which I came to realize when I could afford to wake up early. Yes, for the last two years, I have been an early riser, and I always strive to be one. I don’t always force myself strictly to adhere to such a routine – but I always try my best.

Sleep in a Third World Country like Nepal

When I was in Kathmandu everybody would go to bed by 8pm and wake up at 6 or 7 in the morning. There was no need to care about what time to go to sleep or what time to wake up. It was the same routine for most people. And as far as I can recall, my mother always got up by 5am, took a shower and began her morning rituals. It has become her habit. Despite her age and health, she still tries to keep up with her morning schedule as much as she can. I remember asking her once how she is able do so. She said that it is up to you to treat your body the way you want, and that your mind plays a big role in determining your sleeping habits. You can be lazy and stay in bed, or you can jump off the bed right away and get involved in your work. Her answer didn’t quite quench my query, as I knew that she also couldn’t afford to sleep longer. Yes, in a poor nation like Nepal, to sleep long hours is a luxury as most people struggle day and night for their existence. If one is wealthy, even in poorer countries, he has the utmost luxury to sleep late or wake up according to his desire; but if you belong to the struggling working class then you are not only forced to get little sleep, but also to become an early riser out of necessity. What an irony…

Sleep in Western Society

Since, this article is mostly written with western readers in mind, even though it can be applied to all, I am going to elaborate more on this issue. Not being able to sleep has been a big concern in most of the western societies.

• Why cannot we sleep?
• What keeps us from sleeping?
• Why people are staying up longer and longer at night?

Many books have been devoted to the answers to these questions– but, in my view the biggest reason why people can’t sleep is the anxiety, stress and the worry of coping with this fast paced society. Yes, the world is not same as it was two thousand years ago. People then didn’t have to worry about uncountable bills to pay, like we do – but then again they had their own problems as we have ours. Many things have changed over the years. The environment is different. Deforestation, global warming, pollution, increase in population, and unawareness among people have given rise to so much anxiety and stress that it’s hard to sleep. How can you sleep when there are a thousand and one things pacing back and forth in your mind? How can you fall into deep sleep when your mind has become crowded with your thoughts and worries? It would be extremely difficult. In addition there are people who have to work nights to support themselves. Then there are people who have the luxury of going to bed early, but they can’t sleep because they are so troubled or occupied. So, most people live their lives sleep deprived. The later they go to bed, the later they wake up in the morning. In addition, some people have to force themselves to wake up early for work. How can one function well if they don’t get enough sleep? And according to scientific survey, we do need at least 7-8 hours of sleep whatsoever.

Who is to be blamed?

The society, the government, the credit card companies, human being themselves… The whole system, the whole practice has become so neurotic that it’s impossible to blame only one factor. Two thousand years ago people used to go into meditation so easily. Our ancestors would fall into sleep when they lay their head on a pillow, now we are having so much trouble – Why? It’s definitely something worth pondering.

The whole system, the whole pattern, the whole mind, the whole society needs cleansing. The whole human consciousness has to go through the alchemy of change. Unless and until a ray of awareness touches us, we will continue to live our life in misery and agony. Unless and until, we realize how essential sleep is for a better, healthy, and productive life, we will keep on suffering.

As Temperatures Rise, Health Could Decline

By David Brown

Washington Post Staff Writer

Depending on where you are, this is going to be a hotter, wetter, drier, windier, calmer, dirtier, buggier or hungrier century than mankind has seen in a while. In some places, it may be deadlier, too.

The effects of climate change are diverse and sometimes contradictory. In general, they favor instability and extreme events. On balance, they will tend to harm health rather than promote it.

That is the majority view of scientists trying to solve an equation whose variables range from greenhouse gas concentrations and the El Niño weather pattern to mosquito ecology and human cells' ability to withstand heat.

"We are not dealing with a single toxic agent or a single microbe where we can put our finger with certainty on an exposure and the response," said Jonathan A. Patz, a physician and epidemiologist at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. "Climate change affects everything."

Predictions of how global warming could affect people's health are crude. They are based on the experience of the past several decades, when there has been a small, well-documented rise in the temperatures of the planet's atmosphere and oceans. What that says about the future -- a time when warming is expected to accelerate, but people may be able to prepare for it -- is quite uncertain.

In the last quarter of the 20th century, the average atmospheric temperature rose by about 1 degree Fahrenheit. By 2000, that increase was responsible for the annual loss of about 160,000 lives and the loss of 5.5 million years of healthy life, according to estimates by the World Health Organization. The toll is expected to double to about 300,000 lives and 11 million years of healthy life by 2020.

The biggest tolls were in Africa, on the Indian subcontinent and in Southeast Asia. Most of that increased burden of death and disease was from malnutrition, diarrhea, malaria, heat waves and floods. But those diseases will play a minor role, at best, in many regions that nevertheless will feel the effects of global warming.

To organize their thinking -- and to focus the attention of policymakers -- researchers tend to put the health effects of climate change into five groups.

Heat Stress

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The most obvious effect of global warming is hotter weather.

Scientists predict that heat waves will be longer and more frequent in the future. Their worst-case effects may have been glimpsed in Europe's summer of 2003, the hottest spell there since the 1500s. About 30,000 people died of heat-related illness, including 14,800 in France in three weeks in August.

People who were old, very young, ill, immobile or poor were at highest risk. Although the human body can adapt somewhat to chronically higher temperatures, those groups will remain vulnerable -- and they are likely to make up a bigger slice of the population in the future.

About 20 percent of people in industrialized countries are over age 60 today. That figure will rise to 32 percent by 2050. More people will also live in cities -- 61 percent of the world's population by 2030, compared with 45 percent now. Cities are "heat islands," 9 degrees Fahrenheit warmer on average than surrounding rural areas and resistant to the cooling effects of night.

Aging and urbanization -- and possibly more obesity -- will put people at greater risk for heat-related illness. Nevertheless, that consequence of global warming may be easier to avoid than others, as a study published three years ago suggests.

It examined mortality on hot days in 28 cities in the last third of the 20th century. Death rates were lower in the 1980s and 1990s than in the 1960s and 1970s in most places, with the least reduction in cities of the Northeast and the Midwest. (A heat wave in Chicago in 1995 caused more than 500 deaths, the biggest U.S. toll in years.)

This steady decline in heat-stress death was almost certainly the consequence of air conditioning, better awareness of the problem and improved medical care.

"If there is a very effective response system, then even in hotter temperatures you may not see more deaths," said Kristie L. Ebi, an epidemiologist and consultant in Alexandria. She helped write the health chapter of the most recent report of the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which was this year's Nobel Peace Prize winner along with Al Gore.

Extreme Weather

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Climate change is expected to increase the severity of storms, especially ones associated with cyclical events such as the El Ni¿o Southern Oscillation.

Flooding is the most common weather disaster, responsible for the deaths of about 100,000 people and the displacement of 1.2 billion from 1992 to 2001. The worsening of this hazard will vary by region. It is expected to change little in Southeast Asia by 2030, but it may increase 50 percent in West Africa and quadruple in Central and South America.

In addition to storms, rising oceans threaten coastal populations. Of the world's 20 megacities, 13 are at sea level. Storm surges, while short-lived, can cause permanent damage, eroding land and damaging water supplies and cropland with saltwater.

Greater variability in weather patterns along with higher temperatures may lead to droughts and water shortages. Today, 1.7 billion people -- about one-third of the world's population -- live in places that have periodic water shortages. That number is expected to increase to 5 billion by 2025.

When it comes to food production, climate change will have varying effects. Overall, it will tend to slow the long historical decline in the number of hungry people.

In 1990, there were 520 million people at risk of hunger, according to a study by British and American scientists published in 2005. In the absence of global warming, that number was predicted to fall to 300 million by 2080. With global warming, it is expected to fall to 380 million, although under various scenarios of greenhouse gas reductions it could drop to 320 to 340 million, according to recent mathematical modeling.

Air Pollution

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Climate change affects air pollution in two ways.

Heat speeds chemical reactions and consequently may worsen pollution from ozone and airborne particulates, or soot. It may also spur pollen production by some plants, which could in turn worsen asthma and allergies in some people.

One model of global warming's effects on air pollution in 15 eastern U.S. cities predicts that the number of days exceeding ozone standards will rise from the current average of 12 to 20 per summer by 2050. Deaths linked to that pollutant -- nearly all in people who have lung or heart ailments -- could go up 5 percent under that scenario.

Waterborne and Food-Borne Disease

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Higher temperatures and torrential rains are likely to cause outbreaks of some diarrheal diseases.

The incidence of cholera -- a bacterial infection whose home is South Asia but that circles the world in slow epidemics -- depends in part on water temperatures in the Bay of Bengal and on monsoon rains. A recent study of waterborne-disease outbreaks in the United States in the past 50 years found that 67 percent were preceded by heavy rainfall.

Researchers in Australia have shown that the number of food-borne infections from salmonella bacteria goes up in hot weather.

Overall, climate change is expected to increase the burden of diarrhea, mostly in developing countries, by 2 to 5 percent by 2020.

Vector-Borne Disease

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Scientists suspect that many diseases transmitted by insects and animals will become more common, although there is more uncertainty about this than other consequences of global warming.

Dengue and malaria, carried by mosquitoes, are most likely to increase. Under some projections, Africans will be exposed to malaria 25 percent more of the time in 2100 than they are now.

That risk, however, could be offset by controlling mosquitoes with pesticides, the use of bed nets by children and pregnant women, and better medical care.

Other diseases that may become more prevalent are yellow fever (also carried by mosquitoes), schistosomiasis (by snails), leishmaniasis (sand flies) and Lyme disease (ticks).

The Role of Planning

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In the United States, most public discussion of global warming has been about ways to slow the phenomenon, and not about ways to dampen or prevent effects that are already inevitable.

"We are a good decade behind Europe in designing and developing adaptations that will decrease our vulnerability and increase our resilience," said Ebi, the epidemiologist.

Such planning is wise not only for the federal government and states, but for cities and towns as well, Ebi believes.

"The impacts of climate change really do depend on your local context," she said.

How to Make Up Your Mind to Succeed

Mind-set is key to finding success for yourself and your children

Well-intentioned parents have unwittingly left their kids defenseless against failure. The current generation of millennials (born between 1980 and 2001) grew up playing sports where scores and performance were downplayed because "everyone's a winner." And their report cards had more positive spin than an AIG press release. As a result, Stanford University psychologist Carol Dweck, PhD, calls them the "overpraised generation." Fortunately, once you understand the situation, there's some quick corrective action that can be taken. And even if you're well past your child-rearing years, her advice will help you better withstand setbacks.

Dweck has been studying how people handle failure for 40 years. Her research has led her to identify two distinct mind-sets that dramatically influence how we react to it. Here's how they work:

A fixed mind-set is grounded in the belief that talent is genetic--you're a born artist, point guard, or numbers person. The fixed mind-set believes it's entitled to success without much effort and regards failure as a personal affront. When things get tough, it's quick to blame, withdraw, lie, and even avoid future challenge or risk.

Conversely, a growth mind-set assumes that no talent is entirely heaven-sent and that effort and learning make everything possible. Because the ego isn't on the line as much, the growth mind-set sees failure as opportunity rather than insult. When challenged, it's quick to reassess, adjust, and try again. In fact, it relishes this process.

We are all born with growth mind-sets. (Otherwise, we wouldn't be able to survive in the world.) But parents, coaches, and teachers often push us into fixed mind-sets by rewarding certain behaviors and misdirecting praise. Dweck's book, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success, and online instructional program, brainology.us, explain this in depth. But she says there are many little things you can start doing today to guarantee that your kids, grandkids, and even you never get derailed by failure.

FOR KIDS

In school

Never compliment a child by saying "You're so smart" or "You picked that up so quickly." Instead, praise effort or strategy by saying "That was clever of you to take that approach" or "I'm proud of your persistence." Listen for similar remarks from teachers and correct them.

In sports

Instead of "You're a natural," say "Practice is really making you better." Instead of inquiring "Did you win?" ask "Did you give your best effort?" Explains Dweck, "Talent isn't passed down in the genes; it's passed down in the mind-set."

At the dinner table

Instead of the standard "How was your day?" (which everyone dreads anyway), ask "What did you learn today?" or "What mistakes did you make that taught you something?" Describe with zeal something you're struggling with. "Instill a passion for learning," says Dweck.

In making plans for the future

Don't just ask about goals; ask about the plan for reaching those goals.

In frustration

Don't permit children to refer to themselves as losers, failures, stupid, or clumsy. "Never let failure progress from an action to an identity," says Dweck. Likewise, don't label your kids. Don't say this one is the artist, and this one is the computer geek. Anyone can be anything.

In doubt

If you encounter skepticism, ask the child to think of areas in which she once had low ability and now excels, or to recall a time when she saw someone learn something or improve in ways not thought possible.

FOR YOU

At work

Instead of letting salary, benefits, and status define job satisfaction, ask yourself if you're still learning. If the answer is yes, then you're fortunate to have a job that encourages a growth mind-set. View its challenges as opportunities rather than stress. If you've stopped learning, then consider looking either for new avenues of growth or for another job.

In relationships

Blame never resolves anything. It's merely the fixed mind-set insisting that you're right. The next time you're tempted to blame, says Dweck, remember that "the whole point of marriage is to encourage each other's development."

When feeling down

People who are depressed tend to believe that's just the way they are. Instead of viewing yourself as a failed end product, think of yourself as a temporarily derailed work in progress. "We usually think of personality as something very stable," says Dweck, "but we're finding that even core parts of it can be changed by shifting mind-sets."

The sun's cooling down - so what does that mean for us?

The sun's activity is winding down, triggering fevered debate among scientists about how low it will go, and what it means for Earth's climate. Nasa recorded no sunspots on 266 days in 2008 - a level of inactivity not seen since 1913 - and 2009 looks set to be even quieter. Solar wind pressure is at a 50-year low and our local star is ever so slightly dimmer than it was 10 years ago.

Sunspots are the most visible sign of an active sun - islands of magnetism on the sun's surface where convection is inhibited, making the gas cooler and darker when seen from Earth - and the fact that they're vanishing means we're heading into a period of solar lethargy.

Where will it all end? Solar activity varies over an 11-year cycle, but it experiences longer-term variations, highs and lows that can last around a century.

"A new 11-year cycle started a year or two ago, and so far it's been extremely feeble," says Nigel Weiss of the University of Cambridge. With Jose Abreu of the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology in Dübendorf and others, Weiss recently predicted that the long-term solar high we've been enjoying since before the second world war is over, and the decline now under way will reach its lowest point around 2020. Their prediction is based on levels of rare isotopes that accumulate in the Earth's crust when weak solar winds allow cosmic rays to penetrate the Earth's atmosphere.

There's even a chance, says Weiss, that we might be heading for a low as deep as the Maunder minimum of the 17th century. Either side of that trough, Europe shivered through the Little Ice Age, when frost fairs were held on the Thames and whole Swiss villages disappeared under glaciers. So should we expect another freeze?

Those who claim the rise in temperatures we've seen over the last century are predominantly the result of intense solar activity might argue that we should, but they're in the minority. Most scientists believe humans are the main culprit when it comes to global warming, and Weiss is no exception. He points out that the ice remained in Europe long after solar activity picked up from the Maunder minimum. Even if we had another, similar low, he says, it would probably only cause temperatures on Earth to drop by the order of a tenth of a degree Celsius - peanuts compared to recent hikes. So don't pack your suncream away just yet.